'I just think it's weird': the nature of ethical and substantive non-ethical concerns about infertility treatments among Black and White women in U.S. graduate programmes.

In the United States, Black women's use of infertility treatments is relatively low, despite elevated or similar rates of infertility compared with White women. Ethical concerns about infertility treatments have been identified as a potential sociocultural factor contributing to these treatment-seeking disparities. Despite documented differences, the substance of these ethical concerns is unclear. Clarifying the nature of these concerns contributes to our understanding of the social forces that shape the contexts of infertility care. Using an intersectional and comparative analysis of semi-structured interviews with Black or African American and White women enrolled in U.S. graduate programmes, this paper investigates the nature and substance of ethical concerns about medicalized infertility treatments. Three central themes emerged: (i) ethical concerns were not binary; (ii) ethical concerns varied by modality, but not by race, and focussed primarily on infertility treatments involving third parties; and (iii) substantive non-ethical concerns were concentrated among Black women and were driven by discomfort with or preferences against treatments involving third-parties. The paper concludes with a discussion of the implications of these findings for researchers, providers, and policymakers.

As inconstitucionalidades da Resolução CFM nº 2294/2021 sobre a utilização das técnicas de reprodução assistida / The unconstitutionalities of Resolution CFM nº 2294/2021 on the use of assisted reproduction techniques

O Conselho Federal de Medicina acaba de editar a Resolução nº 2.294/2021, publicada em 15 de junho de 2021, que aponta normas para a utilização das técnicas de reprodução assistida. Apesar de o propósito ser o aperfeiçoamento das práticas e a observância aos princípios éticos e bioéticos para trazer maior segurança e eficácia a tratamentos e procedimentos médicos, repete inconstitucionalidades das normatizações pretéritas e impõe mais restrições ao sonho das pessoas de ter filhos. Desse modo, mais do que avanços, o novo regramento provoca um retrocesso que não se coaduna com a garantia constitucional e legal que assegura o livre planejamento familiar.(AU)

The Brazilian Federal Council of Medicine has just edited the Resolution nº 2.294/2021, published on June 15, 2021, which sets out rules for the use of assisted reproduction techniques. Although the purpose is to improve practices and observe ethical and bioethical principles to bring greater safety and efficacy to medical treatments and procedures, it repeats the unconstitutionalities of past regulations and imposes more restrictions on people's dreams of having children. In this way, more than advances, the new regulation provokes a setback that is not consistent with the constitutional and legal guarantees of free family planning.(AU)

Restricted access to assisted reproductive technology and fertility preservation: legal and ethical issues.

Access to assisted reproductive technology (ART) and fertility preservation remains restricted in middle and low income countries. We sought to review the status of ART and fertility preservation in Brazil, considering social indicators and legislative issues that may hinder the universal access to these services. Although the Brazilian Constitution expressly provides the right to health, and ordinary law ensures the state is obliged to support family planning, access to services related to ART and fertility preservation is neither easy nor egalitarian in Brazil. Only a handful of public hospitals provide free ART, and their capacity far from meets demand. Health insurance does not cover ART, and the cost of private care is unaffordable to most people. Brazilian law supports, but does not command, the state provision of ART and fertility preservation to guarantee the right to family planning; therefore, the availability of state-funded treatments is still scarce, reinforcing social disparities. Economic projections suggest that including ART in the Brazilian health system is affordable and may actually become profitable to the state in the long term, not to mention the ethical imperative of recognizing infertility as a disease, with no reason to be excluded from a health system that claims to be 'universal'.

Recent Judgement of the Italian Judiciary about medical assisted procreation (MAP): is informed consent valid after parents separation?

ABSTRACT: Law No 40/2004 regulates in Italy the matter of medically assisted procreation (MAP). Recently, the Tribunal of Capua Vetere expressed its position on the subject of informed consent in a case of MAP. In the specific case, a couple entered the preliminary stages of the PMA procedures, carrying out the fertilization of the ovum and the embryo production. Afterwards, the couple separated and the man denied consent to the continuation of the MAP. The woman, willing to proceed with the implantation, the woman made an urgent judicial appeal, obtaining the judge's permission to transfer the embryo to the uterus. This paper analyses the different bioethical positions on MAP's informed consent. In fact, on the one hand, the paper highlight what is set out in Law 219/2017 which provides for the possibility of the patient to revoke at any time the consent to the treatment given. On the other hand, it should be noted that Law 40/2004, willing to protect the embryo, establishes the irrevocability of the position of parental consent after fertilization. The judgment in question seems to favour this latter position, placing itself in the protection of the cryopreserved embryo and recall-ing the principle of entrustment following the fertilization of the egg. Nevertheless, the matter is controversial a consistent amount of legal developments are expected to arise in the next future.

Disparities in access to effective treatment for infertility in the United States: an Ethics Committee opinion.

In the United States, economic, racial, ethnic, geographic, and other disparities prevent access to fertility treatment and affect treatment outcomes. This opinion examines the factors that contribute to these disparities, proposes actions to address them, and replaces the document of the same name, last published in 2015.

Moving innovation to practice: an Ethics Committee opinion.

The introduction of new strategies, tests, and procedures into clinical practice raises challenging ethical issues involving evaluation of evidence, balancing benefits and harms, supporting patient autonomy, avoiding conflict of interest, and promoting advances in health-care. The purpose of this document is to assist reproductive health practitioners as they introduce new interventions into the clinical care that they provide to patients. This document replaces the previously published document of the same name, last published in 2016.

Surrogacy and "Procreative Tourism". What Does the Future Hold from the Ethical and Legal Perspectives?

Background and objectives: To explore the ethical and legal complexities arising from the controversial issue of surrogacy, particularly in terms of how they affect fundamental rights of children and parents. Surrogacy is a form of medically-assisted procreation (MAP) in which a woman "lends" her uterus to carry out a pregnancy on behalf of a third party. There are pathological conditions, such as uterine agenesis or hysterectomy outcomes, that may prevent prospective mothers from becoming pregnant or carry a pregnancy to term; such patients may consider finding a surrogate mother. Many issues relating to surrogacy remain unresolved, with significant disagreements and controversy within the scientific community and public opinion. There are several factors called into play and multiple parties and stakeholders whose objectives and interests need to somehow be reconciled. First and foremost, the authors contend, it is essential to prioritize and uphold the rights of children born through surrogacy and heterologous MAP. Materials and methods: To draw a parallel between Italy and the rest of the world, the legislation in force in twelve European countries was analyzed, eleven of which are part of the European Union (France, Germany, Italy, Spain, Greece, Netherlands, Belgium, Denmark, Lithuania, Czech Republic and Portugal) and three non-members of the same (United Kingdom, Ukraine and Russia), as well as that of twelve non-European countries considered exemplary (United States, Canada, Australia, India, China, Thailand, Israel, Nigeria and South Africa); in particular, legislative sources and legal databases were drawn upon, in order to draw a comparison with the Italian legislation currently in force and map out the evolution of the Italian case law on the basis of the judgments issued by Italian courts, including the Constitutional and Supreme Courts and the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR); search engines such as PubMed and Google Scholar were also used, by entering the keywords "surrogacy" and "surrogate motherhood", to find scientific articles concerning assisted reproduction techniques with a close focus on surrogacy. Results: SM is a prohibited and sanctioned practice in Italy; on the other hand, it is allowed in other countries of the world, which leads Italian couples, or couples from other countries where it is banned, to often contact foreign centers in order to undertake a MAP pathway which includes surrogacy; in addition, challenges may arise from the legal status of children born through surrogacy abroad: to date, in most countries, there is no specific legislation aimed at regulating their legal registration and parental status. Conclusion: With reference to the Italian context, despite the scientific and legal evolution on the subject, a legislative intervention aimed at filling the regulatory gaps in terms of heterologous MAP and surrogacy has not yet come to fruition. Considering the possibility of "fertility tourism", i.e., traveling to countries where the practice is legal, as indeed already happens in a relatively significant number of cases, the current legislation, although integrated by the legal interpretation, does not appear to be effective in avoiding the phenomenon of procreative tourism. Moreover, to overcome some contradictions currently present between law 40 and law 194, it would be appropriate to outline an organic and exhaustive framework of rules, which should take into account the multiplicity of interests at stake, in keeping with a fair and sustainable balance when regulating such practices.

Assisted reproductive technology, justice and autonomy in an era of COVID-19.

Fertility services were significantly curtailed or suspended as an initial response to the coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic earlier this year, following guidance from European Society for Human Reproduction and Embryology (ESHRE) and the American Society for Reproductive Medicine (ASRM) as well as a General Direction (GD0014) issued by the Human Fertilisation and Embryo Authority (HFEA). It is difficult to argue with triage of medical care and resources in the face of anticipated overwhelming demand, but this situation resulted in considerable distress, as shown by a change.org petition opposing ASRM recommendations, which has gathered over 21,000 signatures to date. Although halting assisted reproductive technology (ART) as the pandemic unfolded was ethical because public health goals superseded individual patient autonomy, the fertility sector now faces a greater challenge balancing ethical considerations in an era characterized by the ongoing threat of COVID-19. This article discusses justice and autonomy in the context of ART, potential conflicts and resolutions.

Aspectos éticos y legales de los test de portadores de mutaciones recesivas en tratamientos de reproducción humana asistida con gametos donados / Ethical and legal aspects of recessive mutation carrier testing in assisted human reproduction treatments with donated gametes

La contribución de donantes, necesaria en numerosos tratamientos de reproducción asistida, exige la aplicación de protocolos que garanticen la compatibilidad y seguridad en la selección y aplicación de dichas donaciones. Este trabajo analiza algunos aspectos relacionados con los avances tecnológicos que permiten detectar mutaciones para enfermedades recesivas, abriendo la posibilidad a la comparación genética (matching) entre donantes y receptores, reduciendo los riesgos de enfermedades transmisibles a la descendencia. Observando los límites que plantea esta tecnología, especialmente, el marco jurídico que rige la obligatoriedad o no de su utilización, así como la intervención de la autonomía del paciente receptor de dichos gametos. Poniendo de manifiesto la importancia del abordaje interdisciplinar y normativo ante la expansión de estos avances en reproducción asistida (AU)

The contribution of donors, which is necessary in many assisted reproduction treatments, requires the application of protocols that guarantee compatibility and safety in the selection and application of such donations. This paper analyses some aspects related to the technological advances that allow to detect mutations for recessive diseases, opening up the possibility of genetic comparison (matching) between donors and recipients, reducing the risks of transmissible diseases to offspring. Observing the limits posed by this technology, in particular, the legal framework governing whether or not its use is obligatory, as well as the intervention of the autonomy of the patient receiving these gametes. Highlighting the importance of an interdisciplinary and regulatory approach to the expansion of these advances in assisted reproduction (AU)

La contribució de donants, necessària en nombrosos tractaments de reproducció assistida, exigeix l'aplicació de protocols que garanteixin la compatibilitat i seguretat en la selecció i aplicació d'aquestes donacions. Aquest article analitza alguns aspectes relacionats amb els avanços tecnològics que permeten detectar mutacions per a malalties recessives, obrint la possibilitat a la comparació genètica (matching) entre donants i receptors, reduint els riscos de malalties transmissibles a la descendència. Observant els límits que planteja aquesta tecnologia, especialment, el marc jurídic que regeix l'obligatorietat o no de la seva utilització, així com la intervenció de l'autonomia del pacient receptor d'aquests gàmetes. Posant de manifest la importància de l'abordatge interdisciplinari i normatiu davant l'expansió d'aquests avanços en reproducció assistida (AU)

De onde vêm os bebês?: Útero artificial, bioética e direito:os possíveis impactos da ectogênese no campo da filiação - Uma análise a partir do contexto jurídico brasileiro / Where do babies come from?: Artificial womb, bioethics and law: the possible impacts of ectogenesis in the field of filiation - An analysis of the Brazilian legal context

Nos últimos tempos, os avanços biotecnológicos no campo da reprodução humana, sem dúvidas, acarretaram diversas alternativas procriativas para aqueles que buscam desempenhar um projeto parental através das chamadas técnicas de reprodução assistida. Desse modo, também nesse seguimento, pesquisas recentes vêm debruçando-se sobre o desenvolvimento da tecnologia do útero artificial, objetivando viabilizar a ectogênese, ou seja, o desenvolvimento de gestações extracorpóreas. Em razão disso, o presente artigo visou revisar, a partir do panorama jurídico brasileiro, os possíveis impactos que o desenvolvimento efetivo de tal ferramenta possa vir a causar na atribuição da filiação civil. Para tanto, a pesquisa pautou-se na técnica da revisão bibliográfica, no intuito de investigar quais seriam os parâmetros para estipulação dos vínculos filiatórios (AU)

En los últimos tiempos, los avances biotecnológicos en el campo de la reproducción humana han conducido a varias alternativas de procreación para aquellos que buscan iniciar un proyecto parental a través de las llamadas técnicas de reproducción asistida. En esta área, la investigación reciente se ha centrado en el desarrollo de la tecnología del útero artificial, con el objetivo de hacer viable la ectogénesis, es decir, el desarrollo de embarazos extracorpóreos. Como resultado, este artículo busca revisar, desde la perspectiva jurídica brasileña, los posibles impactos que el desarrollo efectivo de dicha herramienta puede causar en la atribución de filiación civil. Para este propósito, se realizó una investigación documental, a fin de recopilar información ya existente sobre el tema del establecimiento de la relación de filiación (AU)

In recent times, biotechnological advances in the field of human reproduction have led to several procreation alternatives for those seeking to initiate a parental project through so-called assisted reproductive techniques. In this area, recent research has focused on the development of artificial womb technology, with the aim of making ectogenesis viable, that is, the development of extracorporeal pregnancies. As a result, this article seeks to review, from the Brazilian legal perspective, the possible impacts that the effective development of this tool may have on the attribution of civil filiation. For this purpose, a bibliographic review was carried out in order to determine which would be the parameters for the assignment of filiation relationship (AU)

En els últims temps, els avanços biotecnològics en el camp de la reproducció humana han conduït a diverses alternatives de procreació per a aquells que busquen iniciar un projecte parental a través de les anomenades tècniques de reproducció assistida. En aquesta àrea, la recerca recent s'ha centrat en el desenvolupament de la tecnologia de l'úter artificial, amb l'objectiu de fer viable la ectogènesi, és a dir, el desenvolupament d'embarassos extracorporis. Com a resultat, aquest article busca revisar, des de la perspectiva jurídica brasilera, els possibles impactes que el desenvolupament efectiu d'aquesta eina pot causar en l'atribució de filiació civil. Per a aquest propòsit, es va realitzar una recerca documental, a fi de recopilar informació ja existent sobre el tema de l'establiment de la relació de filiació (AU)

Deseados pero abandonados: el incierto destino de los embriones criopreservados / Desired but abandoned: the uncertain fate of cryopreserved embryos

La reproducción asistida, de la mano de ciencias afines como la genómica y la criobiología, ha transformado de modo vertiginoso el abordaje de la fertilidad, no solamente por los avances científico-técnicos, sino por la coyuntura social contemporánea. Como es conocido, en la actualidad se ha elevado el porcentaje de mujeres y parejas que deben recurrir a estas técnicas biomédicas y, con ellas, se han diversificado las etiologías de la infertilidad. El continuo avance por superar los obstáculos biológicos y ofrecer nuevas opciones con las que solventar la infertilidad, lleva también asociados interrogantes y dilemas éticos y normativos. Entre esos dilemas nos encontramos los usos y destinos de los embriones criopreservados sobrantes de las técnicas de reproducción asistida (TRA). Tras más de cuatro décadas de fecundación in vitro (FIV), la problemática surgida a raíz de la criopreservación embrionaria y la incesante acumulación de embriones parece no haber alcanzado su fin. Así, las diferentes opciones contempladas por la normativa vigente no acaban de satisfacer a los pacientes y profesionales para poder responder a la situación existente de almacenamiento de un número importante de embriones criopreservados en los biobancos de los centros de reproducción asistida, sin destino definido (AU)

La reproducció assistida, de la mà de ciències afins com la genòmica i la criobiologia, ha transformat de manera vertiginosa l'abordatge de la fertilitat, no solament pels avanços cientificotècnics, sinó per la conjuntura social contemporània. Com és conegut, en l'actualitat s'ha elevat el percentatge de dones i parelles que han de recórrer a aquestes tècniques biomèdiques i, amb elles, s'han diversificat les etiologies de la infertilitat. El continu avanç per superar els obstacles biològics i oferir noves opcions amb les quals solucionar la infertilitat, porta també associats interrogants i dilemes ètics i normatius. Entre aquests dilemes ens trobem els usos i destinacions dels embrions criopreservats sobrants de les tècniques de reproducció assistida (TRA). Després de més de quatre dècades de fecundació in vitro (FIV), la problemàtica sorgida arran de la criopreservació embrionària i la incessant acumulació d'embrions sembla no haver aconseguit la seva fi. Així, les diferents opcions contemplades per la normativa vigent no acaben de satisfer als pacients i professionals per a poder respondre a la situació existent d'emmagatzematge d'un nombre important d'embrions criopreservats en els biobancs dels centres de reproducció assistida, sense destinació definida (AU)

Assisted reproduction, hand in hand with related sciences such as genomics and cryobiology, has vertiginously transformed the approach to fertility, not only because of scientific and technical advances, but also because of the contemporary social context. As is well known, a high percentage of women and couples who have to resort to this biotechnology and, with them, the aetiologies of infertility have diversified. The continuous progress in overcoming biological barriers and provide new therapeutic options to address infertility also raises ethical and regulatory questions and dilemmas. Among these dilemmas are the uses and purpose of cryopreserved embryos left over from assisted reproduction techniques. After more than four decades of in vitro fertilization (IVF), the concern arising from embryo cryopreservation and the incessant accumulation of embryos do not seem to have reached an end. Thus, the different options contemplated by the current regulations do not satisfy users and professionals to be able to respond to the existing situation of storage of a significant number of cryopreserved embryos in the biobanks of assisted reproduction clinics, with no defined destination (AU)

Los contratos de maternidad subrogada desde una perspectiva del Análisis Económico del Derecho / Surrogacy contracts from an Economic Analysis of Law perspective

La microeconomía permite identificar aspectos clave en las decisiones de los agentes económicos, sin embargo, es insuficiente por cuanto las decisiones no sólo se limitan a lo pactado entre las partes sino también se ven afectadas por políticas de gobierno y el desempeño de la industria. Por otro lado, el análisis de la macroeconomía destaca la existencia de políticas que inciden en el desarrollo del mercado tales como: controles de precios, nivel de institucionalidad, barreras internacionales y oportunidades económicas. El acuerdo de maternidad subrogada es un medio que permite la mutua satisfacción de las partes: el aspecto reproductivo / filial de los padres y el aspecto económico de la madre subrogada. Los controles de precios y barreras internacionales afectan a las madres gestantes en múltiples formas, además los efectos de estos controles varían en cada país. El Perú es un destino potencial para el turismo reproductivo dado los bajos costos de sus servicios médicos y los altos estándares de calidad de estos, así como la jurisprudencia uniforme que viabiliza los convenios de maternidad subrogada, siendo el vacío legal un inconveniente para la realización de este tipo de actos. De legalizarse los acuerdos de maternidad subrogada, el precio de la contraprestación dependerá del estado de necesidad de la mujer y su costo de oportunidad. Una regulación permisiva no siempre asegurará un justo intercambio de recursos si no está respaldada por una adecuada institucionalidad que incentive la reproducción asistida como un derecho de la persona (AU)

Microeconomics allows the identification of key aspects in the decisions of economic agents; however, it is insufficient because the decisions are not only limited to the agreement between parties but also, they are affected by government policies and industry performance. On the other hand, the macroeconomic analysis emphasizes the existence of policies that influence market development such as: price controls, level of institutionality, international barriers and economic opportunities. The surrogacy agreement is a mean that allows the mutual satisfaction of the parties: the reproductive/filial aspect of the intended parents and the economic aspect of the surrogate mother. Price controls and international barriers affect pregnant mothers in multiple ways, and the effects of these controls vary among countries. Peru is a potential destination for reproductive tourism given the low costs of their medical services and high-quality standards, as well as the uniform jurisprudence that makes surrogacy agreements viable. Nonetheless, the legal gap is an inconvenience for the realization of this type of act. If surrogacy agreements are legalized, the compensation price will depend on the woman's state of need and her opportunity cost. A permissive regulation will not always guarantee a fair exchange of resources if it is not supported by an adequate institutional framework that encourages assisted reproduction as a right of the person (AU)

La microeconomia permet identificar aspectes clau en les decisions dels agents econòmics, no obstant això, és insuficient puix que les decisions no només es limiten als pactes entre les parts sinó també es veuen afectades per polítiques de govern i l'acompliment de la indústria. D'altra banda, l'anàlisi de la macroeconomia destaca l'existència de polítiques que incideixen en el desenvolupament del mercat tals com: controls de preus, nivell d'institucionalitat, barreres internacionals i oportunitats econòmiques. L'acord de maternitat subrogada és un mitjà que permet la mútua satisfacció de les parts: l'aspecte reproductiu / filial dels pares i l'aspecte econòmic de la mare subrogada. Els controls de preus i barreres internacionals afecten les mares gestants en múltiples formes, a més els efectes d'aquests controls varien en cada país. El Perú és una destinació potencial per al turisme reproductiu donat els baixos costos dels seus serveis mèdics i els alts estàndards de qualitat d'aquests, així com la jurisprudència uniforme que viabilitza els convenis de maternitat subrogada, sent el buit legal un inconvenient per a la realització d'aquest tipus d'actes. De legalitzar-se els acords de maternitat subrogada, el preu de la contraprestació dependrà de l'estat de necessitat de la dona i el seu cost d'oportunitat. Una regulació permissiva no sempre assegurarà un just intercanvi de recursos si no està recolzada per una adequada institucionalitat que incentivi la reproducció assistida com un dret de la persona (AU)